How citations work
Citation signals explained, with examples
A signal is the italic word or phrase before a citation that tells the reader how the authority bears on your sentence.
No signal means the authority states the proposition itself; “See” means it supports it with a step of inference, “See generally” offers background, and “Accord” adds authority that agrees.
“Cf.” supports the proposition by analogy, and “But see” points the other way.
10 real examples
Each citation is printed as the book prints it, from an authority the book checked against its source.
See generally Train v. Nat. Res. Def. Council, Inc., 421 U.S. 60, 63–64 (1975).
- Case name
- Train v. Nat. Res. Def. Council, Inc.
- Volume, reporter and first page
- 421 U.S. 60
- Pinpoint
- 63–64
- Year
- (1975)
The authority
- Train v. Nat. Res. Def. Council, Inc. (U.S., Apr. 16, 1975)Source (govinfo.gov)
Where the book teaches this
See generally Dr. Seuss, One Fish Two Fish Red Fish Blue Fish (1960).
The authority
- One Fish Two Fish Red Fish Blue Fish (Mar. 12, 1960)Source (penguinrandomhouse.com)
Where the book teaches this
See Thaler v. Perlmutter, 130 F.4th 1039 (D.C. Cir. 2025), cert. denied, No. 25-449 (U.S. Mar. 2, 2026).
- Case name
- Thaler v. Perlmutter
- Volume, reporter and first page
- 130 F.4th 1039
- Court and date
- (D.C. Cir. 2025)
- Docket number
- No. 25-449
The authority
- Thaler v. Perlmutter (D.C. Cir., Mar. 18, 2025)Source (media.cadc.uscourts.gov)
Where the book teaches this
See Snell v. United Specialty Ins. Co., 102 F.4th 1208, 1230 (11th Cir. 2024) (Newsom, J., concurring).
- Case name
- Snell v. United Specialty Ins. Co.
- Volume, reporter and first page
- 102 F.4th 1208
- Pinpoint
- 1230
- Court and date
- (11th Cir. 2024)
The authority
- Snell v. United Specialty Ins. Co. (11th Cir., May 28, 2024)Source (govinfo.gov)
Where the book teaches this
Accord Halo Elecs., Inc. v. Pulse Elecs., Inc., 579 U.S. 93, 105 (2016).
- Case name
- Halo Elecs., Inc. v. Pulse Elecs., Inc.
- Volume, reporter and first page
- 579 U.S. 93
- Pinpoint
- 105
- Year
- (2016)
The authority
- Halo Elecs., Inc. v. Pulse Elecs., Inc. (U.S., June 13, 2016)Source (govinfo.gov)
Where the book teaches this
See Perez v. Mortg. Bankers Ass’n, 575 U.S. 92, 109–10 (2015) (Scalia, J., concurring in the judgment).
- Case name
- Perez v. Mortg. Bankers Ass’n
- Volume, reporter and first page
- 575 U.S. 92
- Pinpoint
- 109–10
- Year
- (2015)
The authority
- Perez v. Mortg. Bankers Ass’n (U.S., Mar. 9, 2015)Source (govinfo.gov)
Where the book teaches this
See Samuel D. Warren & Louis D. Brandeis, The Right to Privacy, 4 Harv. L. Rev. 193 (1890).
The authority
- Samuel D. Warren & Louis D. Brandeis, The Right to Privacy (Dec. 15, 1890)Source (jstor.org)
Where the book teaches this
See generally Allison Orr Larsen, Factual Precedents, 162 U. Pa. L. Rev. 59 (2013) [hereinafter Larsen, Factual Precedents].
The authority
- Factual Precedents (University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 2013)Source (scholarship.law.wm.edu)
Where the book teaches this
See Andy Greenberg & Matt Burgess, The Mystery of ‘Jia Tan,’ the XZ Backdoor Mastermind, Wired (Apr. 3, 2024, at 09:54 ET), https://www.wired.com/story/jia-tan-xz-backdoor/ [https://perma.cc/TC2Z-YALN].
The authority
- The Mystery of ‘Jia Tan,’ the XZ Backdoor Mastermind (Apr. 3, 2024)Source (wired.com)
Where the book teaches this
See ECF Nos. 451, 452.
The authority
- ECF Nos. 451, 452 (D.D.C., Jan. 11, 2023)Copy (courtlistener.com)
Where the book teaches this
Where the book teaches this
The full rule, its exceptions and the reasons for it are in these sections.